MODULE 1 - Climate change and the future of wine: production, geography and impact

1.1 - Viticulture and territory: from vine to glass

1.2 - Exploring wine geography: a journey through regions

1.3 - The climate shift: how climate change is redrawing wine production and geography.

MODULE 1

Climate change and the future of wine: production, Geography and impact

Introduction to the module

This training module offers an exploration of the intricate relationship between wine production, geographical regions and the growing impact of climate change on the wine sector. Participants will start byexploring the fundamentals of viticulture, learning about how vineyard location, climate and soil influence the characteristics of the wine produced. From there, the journey extends into the global landscape of wine, investigating how the major wine regions – across the countries partner of WINE Project, the rest of Europe and of the world – produce distinct styles of wine shaped by their unique terroir. Finally, the module concludes with a deep dive into the impacts of climate change are reshaping wine growing areas and production methods. By the end of the module, participants will not only have an understanding of how wine is made and where it comes from, but they will also gain critical insights into the emerging challenges the wine industry faces in the current context.

Structure of the module

With a blend of theory and practical insights, the module is structured into three key sections/learning units:

Learning Unit 1.1 - Viticulture and territory: from vine to glass

In this section, participants will delve into the fundamentals of wine production, covering the vineyard’s life cycle, key viticulture techniques and the winemaking process. They will learn about how soil, climate, vineyard exposure and location influence the outcome of wine.

Contents:

• Soil structure and composition.
• Climate elements in the viticulture process.
• Exposure and localisation of vineyards.
• The different training systems and their characteristics.
• The annual cycle of the vine.
• The winemaking process
• Wine vessels
• Wine corks

Learning outcomes:

Identify key elements of wine production.

Duration: 3 hours.

Learning Unit 1.2 - Exploring wine geography: a journey through regions

This section will take learners on a tour of the world’s major wine-producing regions, highlighting grape varieties, terroir characteristics and key appellations. From the major regions in the countries partner of WINE Project (Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway) to the rest of the main regions in Europe (France, Portugal) and of the world (South Africa, California, Australia, Chile) participants will explore how geography influences wine production across the globe.

Contents:

Grape varieties, terroir characteristics, key appellations, for major wine regions in:

• Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway
• Rest of Europe: France, Portugal
• Rest of the world: South Africa, California, Australia, Chile

Learning outcomes:

Identify key elements of wine production across major national and international wine-producing regions.

Duration: 5 hours.

Learning Unit 1.3 - The climate shift: how climate change is redrawing wine production and geography.

This learning unit introduces participants to the concept of climate change, its key elements and the complex ways in which it affects the global wine industry. Through a combination of theoretical concepts, practical examples and case studies, learners will gain a comprehensive understanding of how climate change is influencing wine cultivation and production processes, shifting wine-producing regions and reshaping global wine geography and markets.

Contents:

• Key climate factors affecting viticulture: temperature, rainfall and water availability, sunlight and growing season length, extreme weather events, air quality.
• Climate impacts on grape quality and wine characteristics: sugar, acid, and tannin balance; aroma and flavour profiles; climate-driven changes in aromatic compounds and phenolic content, potential for new wine styles.

Learning outcomes:

Recognize key climate factors affecting the sector.

Identify climate impacts on cultivation and quality.

Recognize changes in cultivation areas and markets.

Duration: 2 hours

Learning Unit 1.1

Learning Unit 1.1 - Viticulture and territory: from vine to glass

The territory is not only the physical place where vines grow, but also a complex set of natural and human factors. Understanding the peculiarities of the soil makes it possible to choose the most suitable vines, optimise cultivation techniques and improve the qualitative yield of production.

1.1.1 Soil in viticulture

Soil is one of the fundamental pillars of viticulture, as it directly influences vine growth, grape quality and wine characteristics.

Not all soils are suitable for vine cultivation and each vine variety requires soils with specific characteristics. Soil plays a crucial role, acting as a reservoir of water and minerals essential for plant growth. Curiously, vines thrive better in less fertile soils than in rich ones. The same vine can produce grapes with different properties depending on the type of soil in which it is grown. The roots of the vine absorb nutrients from the soil that influence the flavour and quality of the wine. These elements come from the cultivated surface layer and are determined by the geology of the region.

Among the main characteristics of a soil suitable for vines is drainage, which is essential in order to prevent the roots from becoming excessively waterlogged. The presence of mineral salts is also fundamental. Two key aspects are considered when describing a soil: texture and chemical composition.

Texture or grain size or structure refers to the organisation of the various solid particles such as sand, silt and clay. These components have different particle diameters and their functionality on an agronomic level is different. The soil skeleton is composed of the coarsest particles (diameter > 2 mm) and represents the network that is filled in by the fine soil, which constitutes the texture and is the remaining part of the soil composed of smaller particles (diameter < 2 mm). From the point of view of texture, soils can be divided into:

Sand: (0.02 to 2 mm)

Silt has characteristics intermediate between sand and clay. Soils with a lot of silt are difficult to manage agronomically and pose problems of physical and mechanical fertility, as well as biological.

Clay, with its finer texture, absorbs water and gradually releases it to the roots, giving compactness and plasticity to the soil, but if it is too abundant, the soil becomes excessively compact and impermeable to water and air, with damage to the roots and to microorganisms useful to the plant;

Silt: (0.002 to 0.02 mm)

The ideal soils from an agronomic point of view are therefore those that balance the three components, with a clay content of no more than 20-25%.

The chemical composition of the soil is essential for vine nutrition. Elements such as nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and magnesium are essential for plant health and grape metabolism.

Soils ideal for viticulture also contain predominantly limestone, marls, schists and clays.

– Limestone, i.e. calcium carbonate, is a key component found in most soils. It originates from the decomposition of organisms that possess limestone structures such as shells or skeletons. This mineralisation leads to the formation of calcareous sediments that accumulate over large areas of soil.

– Marls are sedimentary rocks that combine a clay component with a carbonate part, usually consisting of calcium carbonate (calcite) or a mixture of calcium carbonate and magnesium (dolomite). Marly sediments are widespread globally, especially in areas that were once marine or lacustrine.

– Shales are medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rocks that are characterised by their ability to flake easily into thin layers. They are formed by the transformation of clay subjected to high pressures and temperatures, which cause the silica crystals to orient in a specific direction, creating shale planes.

– Clays are very fine sediments composed mainly of clay minerals, i.e. aluminosilicates. Their formation occurs through the leaching of rocks containing these minerals, followed by long transport in lake, marine or lagoon environments during past geological eras.

Soil composition and its effects on wine

Soil Type	Composition	Wine Characteristics
Limestone-marl	Equal parts of limestone and clay	Deep colors, intense aromas, rich alcohol, low acidity, excellent longevity
Limestone-sandstone	Limestone with a fair amount of sand	Balanced alcohol and phenolics, fine aromas, not always suitable for aging
Marl-ferruginous	Marl and iron	Produces high-quality wines, also known as “red soils”
Clayey soils	High clay content	Intense pigmentation, complex aromas, high alcohol, smoothness, longevity; suitable for red grapes
Sandy soils	High sand content	Light structure, good acidity, lower longevity due to leaching of dissolved substances

Soil vs Terroir

The difference between terrain and terroir in viticulture is fundamental to understanding the complexity of wine production. Although the two terms are sometimes used synonymously, they have distinct and complementary meanings.

The term terrain refers specifically to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of the soil in which the vines grow. It is a concept closely linked to agricultural science and focuses on technical and measurable aspects.

Terroir is a French term that embraces a much broader and more complex vision that considers viticulture as an art and a science deeply linked to the terroir. Every vineyard is in fact the result of a unique interaction between environment, vine and agricultural practices, influenced by the specific characteristics of the soil, climate and topography, and last but certainly not least, a human factor composed in turn of many variables including the history, culture and traditions of the place. Terroir is therefore not a static and immobile concept, but one that is constantly evolving and in perpetual motion. It is at the heart of quality winemaking, since it defines the identity of wines and their uniqueness.

1.1.2 The vine and the climate

The vine is a particularly weather-sensitive plant. It is vulnerable to both excessive heat during the summer and spring frosts. In addition, it needs good exposure to light and low rainfall. Geographical areas that meet these requirements are in a latitude range of 30° to 50° north and 30° to 40° south. However, there are exceptions due to variable factors that influence wine vintages.

Temperature

Heat is a key factor for the vine, as temperatures that are too high or too low impair its vegetative cycle (the vine’s vegetative cycle refers to the vine’s growth and development process throughout the year, divided into different phenological phases). Cold resistance is crucial: European vines cannot tolerate temperatures below -15°C or -18°C, whereas American vines are more resistant and can survive up to -27°C. Cold resistance depends on various factors, both genetic (related to the variety), internal (related to the plant itself) and external (climatic conditions). Some European grape varieties, for example, are more resistant due to a shorter vegetative and productive cycle, which makes them less susceptible to spring frosts. Temperatures below -3°C during budding are detrimental, while drops of up to 2.5°C before flowering can jeopardise the harvest. The health and vigour of the plant, particularly in the first years, are crucial, as the young shoots do not yet have adequate protection against the cold. Moreover, at this stage, the plant is more vulnerable to diseases that can reduce its resistance to colder periods. The climate, the duration of cold weather, frosts alternating with periods of thaw, snow, humidity and wind are external factors that are difficult to control and have a profound effect on viticulture.

The ideal temperatures for vines vary according to the stages of the growing cycle, and are mainly found in the latitudes already mentioned, where from May to August the optimum daytime temperature is between 25 and 28°C. The ideal temperatures for each phase of the vegetative cycle are:

– Sprouting: between 8 and 12°C
– Flowering: between 17 and 22°C
– Until veraison (one of the most important phases in the vine’s vegetative cycle, when the grapes begin the ripening process): between 22 and 25°C
– From veraison to ripening: between 22 and 28°C
– Harvest: between 17 and 23°C

Temperature range and the vine

In addition to daytime temperature, an important variable in obtaining quality grapes is the temperature range, i.e. the difference between daytime and night-time temperatures. This variability is particularly evident in hilly areas and favours the concentration of aromatic compounds in the grapes. The temperature range contributes to a greater intensity and fineness of aromas (thanks to terpenes, volatile aromatic compounds that contribute to the primary aromas of the grape and, therefore, of the wine, and polyphenols, non-volatile compounds that influence the colour, structure and taste of the wine) and favours the concentration of acids in the pulp, improving the wine’s shelf life.

The role of light in vine cultivation

Light is a crucial element for vines, as it is for all plants that need sun. The vine prefers sunny environments and areas with a good number of sunny days, especially during vegetation and ripening. It is a plant that needs many hours of light for its vegetative and reproductive functions, which is why it grows best in moderate latitudes. However, different grape varieties have different sun exposure requirements, depending on their natural development and adaptation to specific climatic conditions. Light influences grape ripening, increasing the amount of sugars and reducing acids, with a particularly visible effect in the months between April and September. Solar radiation is divided into direct radiation, which passes through the atmosphere, and diffuse radiation, which is reflected and dispersed in the atmosphere.

Moisture in vine cultivation

Water-related weather phenomena have a significant influence on viticulture. The vine is less sensitive to moisture than to heat and light, but it tolerates neither too wet nor too dry conditions. In humid areas, too much water dilutes the grape juices and encourages the proliferation of parasites, while in arid areas the vine may need emergency irrigation, although it is quite resistant to water scarcity.

Rain

Rain affects water availability for the vine. In very humid areas, water availability is high, but the plant suffers from pests and juice dilution, which lowers the quality of the grapes. In contrast, in dry climates, irrigation is often necessary for the plant’s survival. The vine’s water requirements vary during the growing cycle: they are highest during berry development (8-120 mm of rain), intermediate during ripening (50-100 mm) and lowest at harvest time (0-5 mm).

The role of soil

The type of soil and its layout influence the availability of water for the vine. Most rainwater is not actually usable by the plant: approximately 50% is lost through runoff, 25% through evaporation, and only 25% remains available. Drained and hilly soils are ideal for viticulture, as they favour plant development but limit water availability.

Snow

Snow, which mainly occurs during the winter rest period, has a limited impact on the vine. However, it has a beneficial effect as it protects the soil from cooling and releases small amounts of nitrogen useful to the plant during the rest period.

Fog

Fog can be harmful, especially during flowering and harvesting, as the moisture it causes encourages the development of mould.

Dew

Dew is a positive phenomenon, as it helps to cool the soil in hot periods and provides a limited water reserve for the plant.

Frosts

Spring frosts, which occur after bud break, are particularly harmful, and can compromise the entire crop if they occur late in the growing cycle. Autumnal frosts, on the other hand, are generally beneficial, as they favour the increase of sugars and the reduction of acids in the berries.

Winds

The effects of winds depend on their intensity and origin. Cool, light winds in hot periods can relieve heat, while hot winds aggravate the thermal stress on the plant. In general, breezes are favourable as they limit pest activity and regulate the humidity in the air, reducing the risk of mould. However, in marine areas, salt-laden winds can damage leaves and berries.

Exposure and location of vineyards

The location and exposure of the vineyards are crucial elements in optimising the growing conditions of the vines and guaranteeing the quality of the harvest.

Exposure and location of vineyards

The location and exposure of the vineyards are crucial elements in optimising the growing conditions of the vines and guaranteeing the quality of the harvest.

Altitude

Altitude has a significant impact on several factors, such as temperature, light intensity and temperature range.

– Low altitude: vines grown at low altitude benefit from greater warmth, which favours the production of fuller-bodied, more mature wines.
– High altitude: vines growing at high altitudes are exposed to lower temperatures, which gives the wines more freshness and acidity.

Slope

Vineyards located on sloping terrain benefit from several factors:

– Natural drainage: sloping terrain favours water runoff, reducing the risk of water stagnation.
– Better exposure to the sun: slopes allow the sun’s rays to reach the leaves and clusters more easily, promoting optimal growth.

Proximity to water bodies

Proximity to rivers, lakes or seas can positively influence the microclimate of vineyards:

– Thermal regulation: large bodies of water, such as rivers or lakes, mitigate temperature fluctuations, maintaining a more stable temperature throughout the year.
– Reflection effect: water can reflect sunlight onto vineyards, enhancing photosynthesis and promoting grape development.

1.1.3 Biological cycles of the vine

Two biological cycles can be distinguished: the life cycle, which concerns the age of the plant, and the annual cycle, which concerns its developmental stages during the year.

The life cycle comprises moments of vigour, productivity and decline.

There are three phases in the life cycle of a grafted vine:

Young – from the 1st to the 3rd year of the plant’s life, a phase in which the vine is unproductive.
Adult – of increasing productivity from year 4 to year 5 and constant from year 6 to year 20-25.
Old – in this phase, which starts around the age of 30, productivity becomes decreasing.

The annual cycle of the vine is subdivided into different phenological phases (phenology: part of ecology that studies the relationships between climatic factors -temperature, humidity, photoperiod- and the seasonal manifestation of certain phenomena of plant life, such as budding, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf fall and the like, each influenced by climatic and management factors). Each phase requires specific interventions to maximise yield and quality, adapting to the conditions of the land and the peculiarities of the vine. Careful management of these aspects is fundamental to the production of excellent wines.

1. The Weeping

– Period: late winter – early spring (February-March, depending on the climate).
– Description: the vine resumes its biological activity. Drops of nutrient-rich sap (the ‘weeping’) emerge from the pruning cuts.
– Risks: susceptibility to late cold; risk of fungal infections through pruning cuts.

Agricultural activities:

Completion of winter pruning.
Preventive treatments to avoid infection (e.g. copper to control fungal pathogens).

2. Sprouting

– Period: March-April.
– Description: buds open and the first shoots begin to develop.
– Risks: late frost that can damage new shoots; attacks by pests such as moths or spider mites.

Agricultural activities:

Monitoring of temperatures and protection against frost (e.g. frost plugs or frost irrigation).
Preventive treatments for pests.
Weed control.

3. Vegetation

– Period: April-June.
– Description: vines rapidly develop new shoots and leaves, increasing leaf area for photosynthesis.
– Risks: occurrence of fungal diseases (e.g. powdery mildew, downy mildew); water shortage in drought areas.

Agricultural activities:

Fertilisation to support growth.
Phytosanitary treatments against fungal diseases.
Canopy management (suckering and clearing) to improve aeration.

4. Flowering

– Period: May-June.
– Description: flowers open and pollination takes place, essential for subsequent fruit set.
– Risks: bad weather (rain, wind or cold) that can compromise pollination; insect attacks.

Agricultural activities:

Weather monitoring.
Treatments against harmful insects (e.g. moths).
Possible irrigation in case of water stress.

5. The Allegation

– Period: June-July.
– Description: the fertilised flowers are transformed into small fruits, giving rise to the bunches.
– Hazards: powdery mildew and downy mildew (two of the main fungal diseases affecting the vine) can affect the bunches; water or nutritional competition.

Agricultural activities:

Disease and pest control with specific treatments.
Green pruning (sphemminellatura, a cultivation practice used in viticulture that consists of removing the femminelli, i.e. the side shoots that develop in the axils of the vine leaves, and topping) to optimise the plant’s resources.

6. The Flooding

– Period: July-August.
– Description: the berries begin to change colour (veraison) and accumulate sugar, while acidity decreases.
– Risks: bird attacks, hail, acid rot.

Agricultural activities:

Application of anti-hail or anti-bird nets.
Monitoring for rot and specific treatments if necessary.
Irrigation management to encourage balanced ripening.

7. Ripening

– Period: August-October.
– Description: the berries reach full ripeness with maximum sugar content and optimum aromatic characteristics.
– Risks: bunch rot; attacks by insects such as wasps or vinegar flies.

Agricultural activities:

Periodic checks to determine the optimal time for harvesting.
Possible defoliation to improve exposure of the bunches to the sun.
Harvesting (manual or mechanised).

8. Vegetative Rest

– Period: November-February.
– Description: the vine enters a state of dormancy; the sap withdraws and the leaves fall.
– Risks: extremely cold temperatures can damage wood and roots.

Agricultural activities:

Dry pruning to shape the vine and encourage future production.
Basic fertilisation to enrich the soil.
Possible trunk treatments to protect the plant from pathogens.

1.1.4 The different training systems and their characteristics

Vine training concerns the cultivation and management of rows of vines, including the organisation of the plants and the structures used to support and guide their growth. The different configurations and physical structures adopted, such as trellises, arbours and rows, allow vines to develop in an orderly manner, facilitating agricultural interventions such as pruning, harvesting and disease control. These systems also influence the plants’ exposure to sunlight and ventilation, fundamental factors for grape ripening and the quality of the final product.

A fundamental classification distinguishes between systems without and with trellis. In the first case, we speak of ‘bush’ training, characterised by the independent growth of the vine without supports. In the systems with a stake, a distinction is made between those using live stakes, as in the case of ‘alberate,’ and those with inert stakes, which include all modern forms of training commonly used in contemporary viticulture.

When using inert supports for vine training, two main configurations can be distinguished: those in which the support structure is arranged along the axis of the row and those in which it is placed between the rows. The first case includes espaliers (or counter-espaliers), which are accompanied by various pruning methods. These forms of training, which originated in France and later spread throughout the world, are considered modern systems. In the second case, we find traditional systems such as pergolas, awnings and other configurations that also allow vines to grow radially or transversely to the rows.

The main forms of vine training used are as follows:

1. Sapling

● Characteristics: the vine is kept low and pruned into a bush form. Does not require structural supports.
● Advantages: ideal for hot and windy climates due to low exposure; protects vines from excessive sun.
● Disadvantages: labour-intensive for management and not suitable for humid climates where lack of ventilation can encourage disease.
● Typical areas: Mediterranean, with poor and arid soils.

2. Guyot

● Characteristics: A renewable cane system (part of the vine selected during pruning to ensure continuous production and renewal of the plant’s productive structure), with one or two horizontal canes tied to support wires.
● Advantages: Suitable for a wide range of grape varieties and terrains; facilitates pruning management and yield control.
● Disadvantages: Higher risk of breakage in strong winds.
● Typical regions: France (Burgundy), Italy (Piedmont, Tuscany).

3. Spur-pruned cordon

● Characteristics: A permanent cane (a structural part of the vine that is not removed during annual pruning and serves as a stable base for the plant’s development over the years, also called a “cordon”) is arranged horizontally along the wire; shoots grow vertically from the nodes.
● Advantages: Facilitates mechanical pruning; ensures good exposure to light and air.
● Disadvantages: Rigid system; requires a long training period for the vine.
● Typical regions: Widely used in modern vineyards worldwide.

4. Pergola

● Characteristics: The canes grow on an elevated horizontal structure, forming a canopy.
● Advantages: Protection from excessive sun and rain; allows for mixed cultivation (e.g., vines and vegetables).
● Disadvantages: Complex maintenance; may reduce grape quality in very humid climates.
● Typical regions: Trentino-Alto Adige, Japan.

5. Tendone

● Characteristics: Similar to the pergola system, but the canes grow on a horizontal net supported by poles. Bunches are suspended for easy harvesting and extensive soil shading.
● Advantages: Suitable for high production; provides sun protection.
● Disadvantages: Requires a lot of labor; high maintenance costs.
● Typical regions: Apulia, Sicily, Spain.

6. G.D.C. (Geneva Double Curtain) training system

● Characteristics: The G.D.C. system involves vine growth on two parallel horizontal cordons, creating a “double curtain” of plants.
● Advantages: Good sun exposure and aeration, facilitates harvesting, and improves wine quality.
● Disadvantages: High installation and management costs.
● Typical regions: Used in Italy (Sicily, southern Italy), California, and other warm, dry areas.

7. Spalliera (Vertical trellis)

● Characteristics: The vines are arranged vertically along support wires.
● Advantages: Facilitates access for mechanical harvesting and phytosanitary treatments; excellent sun exposure.
● Disadvantages: Not always suitable for poor soils or windy areas.
● Typical regions: Intensive vineyards in Europe and the New World.

8. Gobelet (a variation of the bush vine system)

● Characteristics: The vine is pruned into a goblet shape without supports.
● Advantages: Wind-resistant; ideal for dry climates.
● Disadvantages: Not optimal for mechanization.
● Typical regions: Spain, southern Italy.

1.1.5 The winemaking process

Winemaking is the process of transforming grape must into wine, encompassing all the stages of production from harvest to the final product ready for market release. Each phase involves various operational choices made by the winemaker or enologist, depending on the raw material (the harvested grapes) and the desired final product. These choices help define the wine’s characteristics within the limits set by the type of wine being produced and the regulations governing its classification.

1. Harvesting

Winemaking begins with the harvest, the moment when grapes are picked. This step is crucial because the ripeness level of the grapes determines the wine’s profile. The desired level of ripeness varies depending on the grape variety and the intended product. The longer the grapes remain on the vine, the higher their sugar and pigment content in the must, while their acidity decreases. For white wines meant to be consumed young and fresh, especially sparkling wines, an early harvest is preferred. In contrast, for wines intended for aging, the grapes remain on the vine longer until they reach phenolic ripeness (referring to the process of development and accumulation of phenolic compounds in the grape berries, including tannins, anthocyanins, and flavonoids, which are essential for the wine’s color, structure, and complexity). Overripening (an advanced stage of ripeness where grape clusters remain on the vine beyond the ideal ripening period) is sought after for the production of passito wines and those classified as late-harvest wines.

The harvest can be:

Manual: careful selection of the best bunches, ideal for high-quality wines.
Mechanical: faster, used for large-scale production.

The harvested bunches are quickly transported to the winery to preserve their freshness and prevent the start of unwanted fermentations.

2. Destemming and Crushing

Once at the winery, the grape bunches undergo two fundamental operations:

Destemming: the separation of the berries from the stems (the woody structure of the bunch), to prevent the stems from imparting bitter flavors to the wine. The stems contain high levels of tannins, lignin, resins, and pectins, which, if transferred to the wine, would irreparably compromise its organoleptic profile.

Crushing: the pressing of the berries to separate the liquid portion from the solid parts (pomace and seeds), which, after any possible maceration with the juice, are removed from the must.

3. Maceration and alcoholic fermentation

The must obtained is transferred to fermentation tanks, which can be made of stainless steel, wood, or cement. At this point, alcoholic fermentation begins, a process in which yeast transforms the sugars in the must into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Two types of winemaking are distinguished here:

For red wines: maceration (the contact between skins and must) is essential to extract color, tannins, and aromas. The duration can range from a few days to several weeks.
For white wines: the skins are often separated from the must immediately to obtain a fresher and more delicate wine.

The temperature is carefully controlled:

White wines: low temperatures (15-18°C) to preserve fruity and floral aromas.
Red wines: higher temperatures (25-30°C) to promote the extraction of tannins and color.

4. Malolactic fermentation (optional)

After alcoholic fermentation, red wines (and some white wines) may undergo malolactic fermentation, a process in which malic acid (one of the organic acids naturally present in grapes and, consequently, in wine) is transformed into lactic acid. This makes the wine smoother and less acidic, giving it a rounder texture (the tactile sensation the wine gives in the mouth).

5. Maturation

Before bottling, once fermentation is complete, the wine undergoes racking and filtration, followed by a settling period called maturation. The methods vary depending on the desired style:

In stainless steel, fiberglass, or cement: used for fresh and fruity wines, preserving primary characteristics.

In wooden barrels: ideal for more structured wines, imparting aromas of vanilla, spices, and greater depth.

The barrels can be large (more than 10 hl), tonneaux (560-1050 l) or small (barrique), each with different influences on the wine.

On the lees (sur lie): for some white wines, aging takes place in contact with dead yeast (also known as bâttonage in French, referring to yeast that is no longer alive but remains suspended in the wine during the winemaking process), imparting greater complexity.

6. Stabilization and filtration

Before bottling, the wine is stabilized and filtered to ensure clarity and stability over time. Some producers opt for light filtration or skip it entirely to preserve the wine’s character.

7. Blending (for blends)

If the wine is a blend (a mixture of different wines or grape varieties), this is the stage in which wines from different varieties or origins are combined to create the desired profile. It is an art that requires experience and sensitivity from the enologist.

8. Bottling

Once ready, the wine is transferred into bottles. This step is critical to preserve the product:
With or without bottle aging: some wines need additional months or years in the bottle to develop their full potential.

Choice of closure: corks are traditional, but for young wines, synthetic corks or screw caps are also used.

The bottles are labeled and ready to be distributed and, finally, enjoyed.

Red winemaking

Red winemaking involves prolonged contact between the must and the skins, both before, during, and after alcoholic fermentation, using the process of maceration. This allows for the selective extraction of the most valuable substances contained in the skins. Although this winemaking method is traditionally used for producing red wines, it is also employed in the creation of some types of white wines, known today as “orange wines,” which acquire varying shades of color due to extended contact with the skins.To produce red wines, the grapes must be harvested at full ripeness, when the phenolic compounds in the skins and seeds are properly mature. If the phenolic compounds are not ripe, there is a risk of obtaining tannins (natural compounds found in plants, particularly in skins, seeds, and stems, known for their astringency, a sensation mainly felt on the tongue and palate) that are harsh and green, which will not evolve either during aging in the cellar or in the bottle. Proper maturation is therefore essential to avoid the presence of astringent and non-evolving tannins. Depending on the type of red wine to be produced—whether it is intended for young consumption, medium aging, or long aging—the harvest date and winemaking techniques may vary. For wines intended for long aging, careful planning at the time of vineyard planting is crucial, as not all grape varieties are suitable for producing wines that can withstand long aging periods while maintaining or enhancing their organoleptic qualities. After potential destemming and crushing of the grapes, the fermenting vat is filled to begin fermentation.

White winemaking

White vinification usually consists of the immediate separation of the skins and grape seeds from the must before alcoholic fermentation, avoiding the extraction of phenolic substances. This method is used for the production of white wines, rosé wines and some whites from red grapes, such as Pinot Noir for sparkling wines. The quality of white wines depends on the harvest, which must take place when the grapes are aromatically ripe but still acidic, with a low pH and without complete phenolic ripening. After the harvest, the grapes are pressed to separate the juice from the skins. Fermentation takes place at a controlled temperature (between 15 and 20°C) to preserve the aromas. At the end, the wine is clarified and treated with sulphur dioxide to prevent oxidation and stop malolactic fermentation. Some white wines are aged in wood, but most are left to mature for a short time in the cellar to emphasise their fresh and fruity notes.

Rosé winemaking

Ro The production of rosé wine is mainly through white vinification on red grapes. The grapes are left to macerate for a variable length of time, which in the case of rosé wines lasts from a few hours to a maximum of two days, during which aromatic substances and anthocyanins, which give the rosé colour, are extracted. The intensity of the colour depends on the grape variety and the duration of skin contact. When the colour reaches the desired shade, the skins are separated from the must, which continues fermentation without
them. Another technique is “saignée”, in which the grapes are initially treated for red vinification. After a few hours, 5-10% of the anthocyanin-rich liquid is removed and separated to continue fermentation without the skins, while the rest of the must continues vinification as red wine. The rosés obtained with this technique tend to have a more intense colour, depending on the time of contact with the skins.

Sparkling Wines winemaking

The legal definition of sparkling wine is provided in Annex VII, Part II, of the European Union Regulation No. 1308/2013. According to this regulation, sparkling wine is a product:

a) obtained from the first or second alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, or wine;
b) characterized by the release of carbon dioxide, which develops exclusively during fermentation, at the moment of opening the container;
c) that, when stored at 20°C in sealed containers, has an overpressure of at least 3 bar (3.5 bar for quality sparkling wines) due to dissolved carbon dioxide;
d) with a total alcohol content of the base wine of no less than 8.5% (9% for quality sparkling wines)

It is important to distinguish between naturally sparkling wines, as defined above, and artificially carbonated wines, which are produced by adding carbon dioxide. The two main methods for producing natural sparkling wine are the Classic Method, which involves secondary fermentation in the bottle, and the Martinotti or Charmat Method, which takes place in a pressurized autoclave.

The production of sparkling wines using the classic method (also known as the traditional method) involves a series of precise steps, during which the wine develops its characteristic effervescence directly in the bottle. Here are the key stages of this method:

Base Wine Production: The first phase involves the preparation of the base wine, which can be made from different grape varieties, such as Pinot Noir, Pinot Meunier, and Chardonnay (typical for Champagne, for example). The grapes are harvested, crushed, and pressed to obtain the must, which is then fermented in containers (such as stainless steel tanks or wooden barrels), where alcoholic fermentation takes place.

Blending: Once the different base wine lots are obtained, a blending process (or cuvée) is carried out, where different wines are mixed to achieve the desired organoleptic profile. In this phase, a small amount of older wine may also be added to give the final product more complexity.

Secondary Fermentation: The crucial step of the classic method is the secondary fermentation, which takes place directly in the bottle. A mixture of yeast and sugar (called liqueur de tirage) is added to the base wine. Once bottled and sealed with a temporary cap, the wine is left to rest in the cellar, where the yeast begins to ferment the sugar, producing carbon dioxide and creating the typical bubbles of sparkling wine.

Aging on the Lees: After secondary fermentation, the bottles are stored at a constant temperature (usually between 12-15°C) for a period that can vary from 15 months to several years, depending on the type of sparkling wine (for Champagne, aging can be as long as 3 years or more). During this phase, the wine enriches itself with complex aromas and a smoother texture thanks to the interaction with the dead yeast cells, which accumulate at the bottom of the bottle.

Riddling (Remuage): Once aging is complete, the bottles undergo the process of riddling, which involves gradually rotating the bottles, placed at an inclined angle on a special rack (pupitre). This process helps to move the sediment towards the neck of the bottle, making it easier to remove.

Disgorging (Degorgement): Once the sediment has accumulated at the neck of the bottle, disgorging occurs, which is the removal of the sediment. The neck of the bottle is immersed in an ice bath so that it freezes, forming an ice “plug” that contains the yeast. Once the ice plug is formed, the temporary cap is removed, and the ice plug is expelled due to the internal pressure of the wine.

Addition of Liqueur d’Expédition: After disgorging, the wine may be slightly lacking in volume, so a small amount of liqueur d’expédition (a mixture of wine and sugar) is added to balance the flavor and determine the sweetness level of the wine. Depending on the amount of sugar added, the type of sparkling wine (such as Brut, Extra Brut, Demi-Sec, etc.) is defined.

Final Closure: Finally, the wine is sealed with a permanent cork, typically made of natural cork, and secured with a metal cage to maintain the internal pressure. After sealing, the sparkling wine is ready to be distributed and sold.

The Martinotti method (or Charmat method) is a process for producing sparkling wines that takes place in a large stainless steel container called an autoclave (or cuve close), which is a sealed, pressurized vessel. This method, developed in 1895 by the director of the Enological Experimental Institute of Asti, Federico Martinotti, aimed to speed up the production of sparkling wine by avoiding the steps of the classic method while preserving the fresh aromas of the grapes without the evolution that occurs during long aging on the lees. Though originally created by Martinotti, the process was later perfected, designed, and patented by the Frenchman Eugène Charmat in 1907, from which the method takes its name.

Base Wine Preparation: The process begins with the preparation of the base wine, which can be a single wine or a blend of different wines. This wine is then placed in the autoclave along with sugar, yeast, and mineral substances that promote fermentation. Adding these ingredients initiates the secondary fermentation, or prise de mousse, during which carbon dioxide is developed, creating the bubbles.

Fermentation and Prise de Mousse: Fermentation occurs inside the autoclave over a short period (about 20 days), during which the wine undergoes secondary fermentation and acquires its effervescence. After this stage, the maturation on the lees can vary, but typically the wine stays in the autoclave for 1-3 months to
stabilize and acquire the desired characteristics. In some cases, for wines of greater complexity and structure, the wine may stay on the lees for a longer period (6-8 months), known as Charmat lungo (long Charmat).

Refrigeration and Stabilization: Once the prise de mousse is complete, the wine is transferred to an isobaric autoclave, where temperature is controlled and constant. This cooling process encourages the precipitation of tartaric acid, which could compromise the wine’s stability. This process helps to maintain the clarity and quality of the final product.

Wine corks are a fundamental element for preserving and protecting wine, ensuring that the contents of the bottle remain sealed and protected from external contaminants like oxygen. Additionally, corks help preserve the organoleptic qualities of the wine during aging. There are various types of corks, each with specific characteristics that affect wine preservation. The main types of corks are:

1. Natural Cork

Natural cork is the most traditional and widely used for quality wines, particularly those meant for aging. It is derived from the bark of the cork oak tree. It is highly valued for the following reasons:

Breathability: cork allows slight oxygenation, which helps the wine mature over time, enhancing its organoleptic qualities.

Elasticity and sealing capability: cork can perfectly adapt to the neck of the bottle, creating an airtight seal.

Durability: a good cork, if stored properly, can last for decades without compromising the wine’s quality. However, cork has some disadvantages, such as the risk of “cork taint,” which can negatively alter the wine’s aroma, giving it a musty or damp smell.

2. Synthetic Cork

The synthetic cork is an alternative to natural cork and is made from plastic or polymer materials, such as polyethylene or acrylic. These corks are increasingly used for wines that are not intended for long aging. The advantages of synthetic cork include:

Uniformity and reliability: they are not subject to defects, ensuring more predictable results.

Ease of production and lower cost: they are less expensive to produce compared to natural corks.

Suitable for young wines: synthetic corks do not allow the same level of oxygen exchange as natural corks, meaning they do not promote

3. Screw Cap (or Twist-Off Cap)

The screw cap is a metal closure that screws onto the bottle. It is widely used abroad and is becoming more popular for wines not necessarily intended for young consumption, thanks to the many experiments conducted since the 1990s that have shown that screw caps allow regular aging of quality wines at significantly lower costs and risks than cork. The advantages of screw caps include:

Hermetic seal: ensures a perfect seal and prevents the ingress of oxygen, preserving the aromatic and fresh characteristics of the wine.

Absence of defects: since it is not natural, there is no risk of defects like “cork taint.”

Ease of opening: no corkscrew is needed, making it convenient for consumers. However, screw caps are not ideal for wines intended for long-term aging, as they do not allow the same gradual oxygenation that cork provides.

4. Glass Wine Corks

Glass wine corks are a modern, elegant alternative with a plastic or rubber gasket for a secure seal. They offer:

Purity: no risk of cork taint, preserving wine’s original flavors.

Airtight Seal: prevents oxidation, maintaining freshness.

Reusability: easy to remove, reinsert, and recycle.

While sustainable and stylish, they are costlier and less suitable for aging due to a lack of micro-oxygenation.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 1 - Soil Texture Analysis

Collect soil samples from different vineyards or locations.

Use the “jar test” method:

– Fill a transparent jar halfway with soil.
– Add water and a few drops of dish soap, then shake vigorously.
– Let it settle for 24 hours. The soil will separate into layers (sand at the bottom, silt in the middle, and clay at the top).
– Measure the thickness of each layer to determine the soil composition.
– Compare results and discuss how different textures influence vine growth.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 2: "Exploring sparkling wines"

Materials needed:

2 bottles of sparkling wine :
- Prosecco (an Italian sparkling wine, typically made using the Charmat method).
- Champagne (a French sparkling wine, made using the traditional method).
2 wine glasses (one for each type of sparkling wine).
A stopwatch or timer to measure how long the bubbles last.
A sheet of paper or a table for recording your observations.

Carrying out the exercise:

1. Pour the sparkling wines (serve at the optimal temperature, usually around 6-8°C).

Pour the same amount of wine (about 100ml) into each glass. Make sure to pour gently to preserve the bubbles, avoiding pouring too aggressively.

2. Examine the appearance:

Look at the colour: How does the colour compare between the two wines? Is one darker or lighter? Do you notice any cloudiness or clarity?
Observe the bubbles: Are the bubbles small and persistent, or large and short-lived? Notice how the bubbles behave in the glass.

3. Assess the bubbles:

Bubble persistence: use a timer to measure how long the bubbles last after the wine is poured. Record the time until the bubbles start to fade.
Bubble texture: swirl the wine gently in the glass and observe how the bubbles interact with the sides of the glass. Are they fine and delicate, or larger and more pronounced?

4. Smell the aroma:

Take a moment to inhale the aromas of each wine. What do you smell? Do you notice fruity, floral, yeasty, or nutty aromas? How do the aromas of each sparkling wine differ?

5. Taste the wine:

Taste the sparkling wines one at a time, focusing on the following:
– Fizziness: how does the effervescence feel in your mouth? Does the wine feel creamy and smooth, or sharp and lively?
– Flavor profile: is the wine fruity, floral, or more mineral? Does one have a stronger yeast or brioche note (which might indicate longer aging)?
– Finish: how does the wine finish on your palate? Does it leave a clean, refreshing sensation, or is it richer and more complex?

6. Record your observations: fill out the table below with your findings from each wine:

Characterístic	Sparkling Wine 1 (e.g., Champagne)	Sparkling Wine 2 (e.g., Presecco)
Color
Bubble Size
Bubble PErsistence (Time)
Aroma
Flavor Profile
Textures of Bubbles
Finish
Notes of Ovservations

Discussion and conclusions:

1. Compare the two sparkling wines:

After completing the table, compare the two wines and their characteristics. Consider questions like:

– Which wine had more persistent bubbles?

– Did the wine aged using the traditional method (Champagne) feel creamier, with more complexity, due to the extended contact with the lees?
– How did the different production methods (e.g., Charmat vs. Traditional) affect the aroma and texture of the wine?
– Did you notice any difference in the fizziness of the wines? Which wine felt more refreshing, and which felt more structured?

2. Reflection on production methods:

Reflect on how the method of production influences the sparkling wine. For example:
– Wines made using the traditional method (like Champagne) undergo a second fermentation in the bottle, which tends to result in finer bubbles, a creamier texture, and more complex flavors, like biscuit, yeast, and brioche.
– Wines made with the Charmat method (like Prosecco) undergo their second fermentation in large tanks, resulting in larger, more pronounced bubbles and typically fresher, fruitier flavors.

3. Conclusion:

Write a final reflection on which sparkling wine you preferred and why. Consider the aromas, flavors, texture, and overall experience of drinking each wine.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n.3 : "Comparison of wines matured in different vessels"

Materials needed:

2 bottles of wine
- 1. A wine matured in wood (barrique or cask).
- 2. A wine matured in steel (stainless steel).
2 wine glasses (one for each wine).
A sheet or table to record your observations.

Label the two wines so you can easily distinguish them during the tasting.

Carrying Out the Exercise:

1. Preparing for tasting:

Arrange the two glasses on a table or flat surface, one for each wine.
Pour the same amount of wine into each glass so you can make a direct comparison between them.

2. Tasting and observations:

Taste each wine one at a time, focusing on the following characteristics:

Colour: observe the colour of the wine. Is it lighter or darker compared to the others? Do you notice any particular reflections or cloudiness?

Aroma: smell each wine and try to identify the aromas. Are they fruitier, floral, spicy, or woody? Did you perceive greater complexity in the aromas of any particular wine?

Taste: pay attention to the taste in your mouth. Which wine is smoother, which is more tannic or fresher? Did you notice any differences between the wines matured in the different vessels?

Body/Structure: how does the wine feel in your mouth? Is it full-bodied and rich, or lighter and fresher?

Persistence: how long does the flavor remain in your mouth after swallowing the wine? Is it short, medium, or long?

Special notes: write down any other interesting impressions you might have. For example, did you notice any changes in characteristics as the wine breathed or warmed up in the glass?

3. Complete the table:

Use the table below to record your observations. Make sure to take notes on each wine’s characteristics accurately.

Characterístic	Wine Aged in Wood	Wine Aged in Steel
Color
Aroma
Taste
Body/Structure
Persistence
Special Notes

Compare the results:

• After tasting and recording your impressions, try to compare the two wines. Answer questions like:

● Which wine had the lightest or darkest color?
● Which wine had the most complex or interesting aroma?
● Did you notice differences in taste and structure between the wines matured in wood, and steel?
● Which wine seemed fresher, smoother, or more complex to you?

Reflection on the impact of vessels:

• Think about how each type of container affected the wine. For example, the wine matured in woodmay have developed more complex flavors like vanilla or spices due to the continuous micro-oxygenation from the wood.
• The wine matured in steel tends to retain a fresher, more fruit-forward profile without externalinfluences from the container.

Conclusion:

● Which wine do you prefer and why?
● How do you think the container in which the wine was matured influenced its flavor and aroma

Resources/Bibliography:

Fisar, Il Sommelier, volume 1° livello.

www.quattrocalici.it
https://www.triplea.it/it/
https://losaicheilvino.it/
www.wsetglobal.com

Extra resources for in-deep level:

Jamie Goode (2022), The science of wine: from vine to glass, University of California Press

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNlZS4sW7Wc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2PIvfUvlBvg

Self-evaluation test

Introduction

Learning Unit 1.2

Learning Unit 1.2 - Exploring wine geography: a journey through regions

Grape varieties, terroir characteristics, key appellations, for major wine regions in:

– Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway.
– Rest of Europe: France, Portugal, Germany.
– Rest of the world: South Africa, California, Australia, Chile

1.2.1 Bulgaria, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Norway.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria has a long history of viticulture and wine production that dates back over 3,000 years, thanks to favorable soils and climates that support the cultivation of both white and red grapes. Despite historical challenges such as Ottoman rule and the phylloxera pest (which attacks the roots of Vitis vinifera), the country experienced a period of great production in the 1980s, during which it was one of the world’s top wine producers.

After the fall of the communist regime, the sector suffered a decline. However, starting in the 2000s, there has been a resurgence thanks to European funding, new technologies, and a focus on indigenous varieties. Bulgaria has established two Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) areas, and efforts are underway to create new wine regions that better reflect the country’s regional diversity. Modern production is characterized by small and medium-sized wineries that promote both local and international varieties, while also fostering wine tourism.

Bulgaria has five distinct wine regions:

1. Danubian Plain (Northern Bulgaria)
2. Black Sea (Eastern Bulgaria)
3. Rose Valley (Central Bulgaria)
4. Thracian Valley (Southern Bulgaria)
5. Struma Valley (Southwestern Bulgaria)

1. Danubian Plain

The Danubian Plain wine region is located in the northern part of Bulgaria and is one of the country’s main Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) areas. It encompasses about 30,000 hectares of vineyards, although the exact size may vary over time due to new plantings and the modernization of crops.

Territory Type

The area stretches along the course of the Danube River and features both hilly and flat landscapes. Its proximity to the river creates unique microclimates ideal for viticulture, while the moderate altitudes enhance the quality of the grapes.

Soil

The soils of the Danubian Plain are primarily calcareous with good drainage, enriched with clayey and sandy components. This mix promotes good water retention and provides minerals that contribute to the aromatic complexity of the wines.

Climate

The climate is temperate continental, with hot summers and cold winters. The high summer temperatures are balanced by the cool breezes from the Danube River, which moderate heat extremes and create a wide temperature range between day and night, essential for preserving the acidity and aromas of the grapes.

Grapes Grown

Both international and native varieties are cultivated in the Danubian Plain:

● International

Red: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot
White: Chardonnay, Muscat Ottonel

● Native

Red: Gamza, Rubin
White: Kaylaski Misket, Varnenski Misket

The region produces a wide variety of wines:

● Red Wines: Robust and spicy, often based on Gamza, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Merlot.
● White Wines: Fresh and aromatic, with floral and citrus notes, typical of Muscat Ottonelr.
● Rosé Wines: Light and fruity, often made from Gamza and Pamid.
● Sparkling Wines: Produced from grapes like Chardonnay and Muscat Ottonel, characterized by lively acidity and delicate aromas.

2. Black Sea

The Black Sea wine region spans approximately 25,000 hectares of vineyards, covering both the northern and southern parts of Bulgaria’s Black Sea coast. The influence of the Black Sea imparts a distinctive character to the wines from this region, with lively acidity and slight minerality. The combination of climate, soil, and native varieties makes the Black Sea one of the most interesting wine regions in Bulgaria, particularly praised for the quality of white wines and the exploration of local traditions.

Territory Type

The area is characterized by predominantly flat and slightly hilly terrain near the Black Sea. Proximity to the sea positively influences viticulture, creating ideal conditions for grape ripening and the preservation of acidity.

Soil

The soils in this region are mainly sandy and clayey, with good drainage. The presence of marine minerals enriches the terroir, giving the wines a special finesse and pleasant salinity.

Climate

The climate is temperate maritime, with mild winters and cool summers thanks to the proximity of the Black Sea. The sea breezes regulate temperatures and reduce the risk of late frosts, while the long sunny days favor even ripening of the grapes.

Grapes Grown

The Black Sea region is known for producing white wines, but it also grows some red varieties. The main grape varieties include:

● International

Red: Cabernet Sauvignon
White: Chardonnay, Muscat Ottonel, Sauvignon Blanc

● Native

Red: Red Misket, Pamid
White: Dimyat

Main Wines

The production in the region focuses on fresh and aromatic wines:

● White Wines: The most representative wines, with floral and fruity notes, made from Dimyat, Chardonnay, and Muscat Ottonel.
● Rosé Wines: Delicate and fragrant, often based on Pamid and Red Misket.
● Red Wines: Light and fruity, with soft tannins, produced from Cabernet Sauvignon and Pamid.
● Sparkling Wines: Elegant and lively, mainly made from Chardonnay and Muscat Ottonel, appreciated for their freshness.

3. Valley of Roses

The Valley of Roses is a unique region located in central Bulgaria, renowned for its favorable climate and the distinctive character of its wines. The area is famous for its biodiversity and its cultural connection to rose cultivation, which is also reflected in the wines, known for their delicate floral fragrances. The region covers about 20,000 hectares of vineyards, with production divided between red and white varieties.

Territory Type

The region lies at the foot of the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina) and the Sredna Gora Mountains. This hilly landscape offers moderate altitudes and a variety of microclimates. It is also famous for the cultivation of roses, which gives the region its name, but the terroir is equally favorable for viticulture.

Soil

The soils in the Valley of Roses are fertile, rich in clay and limestone, with good drainage. The hills offer sun-exposed soils, ideal for producing aromatic and well-structured wines.

Climate

The climate is moderately continental, with a slight Mediterranean influence. Winters are relatively mild, while summers are hot, with significant temperature differences between day and night. This promotes the development of aromas and helps preserve the acidity of the grapes.

Grapes Grown

● International

Red: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot
White: Chardonnay

● Native

Red: Mavrud, Red Misket, Pamid

Main Wines

The region produces a range of high-quality wines:

● Red Wines: Intense and structured, often based on Mavrud and Cabernet Sauvignon, with spicy notes and well-balanced tannins.
● White Wines: Aromatic and fresh, with citrus and floral notes, made from Red Misket and Chardonnay.
● Rosé Wines: Elegant and fruity, with freshness and lightness, often made from Pamid.
● Sparkling Wines: Fresh and lively wines made from grapes like Chardonnay and Misket Rosso, appreciated for their brilliant acidity and aromatic complexity.

4. Thracian Valley

The Thracian Valley is historically linked to wine production dating back to ancient times, making it one of Europe’s oldest wine regions. The Mavrud variety, a symbol of the region, represents the heart of Bulgarian winemaking due to its intensity and aging potential. The combination of soil, climate, and traditions makes the Thracian Valley one of Bulgaria’s most prestigious wine regions, internationally appreciated for its full-bodied red wines and exploration of native varieties. It is the largest wine region in Bulgaria, with over 70,000 hectares of vineyards, divided between red and white varieties.

Territory Type

The region consists mainly of plains and hills, with altitudes ranging from 200 to 500 meters. The Thracian Valley is surrounded by the Rhodope Mountains to the south and the Sredna Gora Mountains to the north, offering a varied terroir ideal for viticulture.

Soil

The soils are primarily clay and limestone, with some sandy areas providing excellent drainage. These soils favor the production of complex, aromatic wines, especially for red varieties.

Climate

The climate is continental with Mediterranean influences, characterized by long hot summers and mild winters. Significant temperature variations between day and night contribute to the concentration of sugars and the development of intense aromas in the grapes.

Grapes Grown

The Thracian Valley is famous for its production of red wines, but it also produces excellent white wines. The main grape varieties include:

● International

Red: Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah
White: Chardonnay

● Native

Red: Mavrud, Pamid, Rubin (a local hybrid of Syrah and Nebbiolo)

Main Wines

The production in the Thracian Valley is known for rich and aromatic wines:

● Red Wines: Full-bodied and complex, with notes of ripe red fruits, spices, and sometimes hints of chocolate. Merlot and Mavrud are the stars of the region, followed by Cabernet Sauvignon and Rubin.
● White Wines: Fresh and lively, with citrus and floral notes, often made from Chardonnay.
● Rosé Wines: Fruity and fresh, mainly made from Pamid and Mavrud.
● Sparkling Wines: Elegant and aromatic, produced from Chardonnay and other white varieties.

5. Struma Valley

The Struma Valley is unique for its terroir and for the cultivation of the native Broad Leaf Melnik variety, one of Bulgaria’s oldest and most distinctive grapes. This variety produces red wines with a strong and spicy character, reflecting the warm climate and mineral-rich soils of the region. Thanks to its geographical location and wine quality, the Struma Valley is recognized as one of Bulgaria’s most promising wine regions, with growing interest in international markets. The Struma Valley covers about 15,000 hectares of vineyards, primarily concentrated in the lower areas of the valley and the surrounding hills.

Territory Type

The terrain of the Struma Valley is characterized by hills and low mountains, with vineyards located along the Struma River and surrounding areas. The proximity to Greece provides a unique Mediterranean climatic influence in Bulgaria, making the region particularly suited for the production of intense red wines.

Soil

The soils are sandy, pebbly, and mineral-rich, with good drainage. This type of terrain favors the growth of robust vines and contributes to the aromatic concentration of the grapes.

Climate

The climate is sub-Mediterranean, with mild winters and hot, long summers. High temperatures and low precipitation during the grape ripening period ensure high concentrations of sugars and aromas, ideal for producing full-bodied wines.

Grapes Grown

The Struma Valley is best known for its red varieties, with a special focus on native varieties and some international ones:

● International

Red: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah

● Native

Red: Broad Leaf Melnik, Melnik 55

Main Wines

The production in the Struma Valley focuses primarily on red wines, with some white and rosé exceptions:

● Red Wines: Full-bodied and complex, with notes of ripe red fruits, spices, tobacco, and sometimes leather. Broad Leaf Melnik and Melnik 55 are the signature varieties, with a distinctive profile that includes bold tannins and good aging potential.
● Rosé Wines: Fresh and fruity, often made from Broad Leaf Melnik, with aromas of strawberries and cherries.
● White Wines: Less common, made from international varieties like Chardonnay, with fresh and floral aromatic profiles.

Italy

Main Wines

• Nero d’Avola: A rich red wine, full of red fruit and spices.
• Etna Rosso: A red wine made from Nerello Mascalese, elegant, mineral, and fresh.
• Grillo: An aromatic and fresh white wine with citrus and floral notes.
• Cerasuolo di Vittoria: A full-bodied red wine made from Nero d’Avola and Frappato, known for its structure and complexity.

Spain

Territory and Climate

The area is characterized by gentle hills and an oceanic temperate climate, with cool summers and humid winters. Proximity to Brussels offers a lively local market for producers.

Soil

The soils are clayey and loamy, with good fertility and water retention capacity, favorable for producing balanced wines.

Grapes Cultivated

● International

Reds: Pinot Noir
Whites: Chardonnay

● Native

Whites: Johanniter, Solaris

Main Wines

● Sparkling Wines: Elegant and mineral, perfect for special occasions, often made from Chardonnay and Pinot Noir.
● Dry White Wines: Aromatic and fresh, with pleasant acidity, ideal as an aperitif.

Luxembourg

Viticulture in Luxembourg has ancient origins, dating back to Roman times when the vine was introduced for local consumption and trade along the Moselle River. During the Middle Ages, monks expanded the vineyards and introduced advanced techniques, laying the foundation for the wine industry. In the 19th century, the phylloxera epidemic devastated the vineyards, but resistant varieties allowed for a recovery. In 1991, the establishment of the Crémant de Luxembourg denomination gave a boost to Luxembourg’s sparkling wines, enhancing the region’s international profile. The Moselle Valley, with its semi-continental climate and varied soils, is at the heart of Luxembourg’s wine production.

Moselle Valley

The Moselle Valley in Luxembourg is one of the country’s most prestigious and historic wine regions, located along the Moselle River, which flows through France, Germany, and Luxembourg. The area is renowned for producing fresh and aromatic white wines, as well as high-quality sparkling wines.

Territory and Climate

The valley stretches along the banks of the Moselle River, featuring gently rolling hills with excellent sun exposure. The climate is continental with oceanic influences, characterized by mild summers and cold winters. The diurnal temperature variations (the difference between day and night) promote the development of aromas and acidity in the grapes.

Soil

The soils of the Moselle Valley are predominantly limestone and clay, with a good presence of schist and alluvial sediments. This variety of terroirs contributes to the complexity and freshness of the wines produced in the region.

Grapes Cultivated

● International

Whites: Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc
Reds: Pinot Noir

● Native

Whites: Elbling, Auxerrois, Rivaner (Müller-Thurgau)

Main Wines

● Riesling: Fresh and mineral, with notes of citrus and peach. One of the region’s most representative wines.
● Elbling: a simple and fresh white wine, with pleasant acidity, and one of the oldest grape varieties in Europe.
● Pinot Gris: rich and aromatic, with hints of ripe fruit and sweet spices.
● Crémant de Luxembourg: a refined and complex sparkling wine made using the traditional method, produced from Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, and Auxerrois.
● The Moselle Valley is a place where tradition and innovation meet, creating wines that represent the elegance and history of Luxembourg’s winemaking.

Norway: a case study in emerging viticulture

Norway, traditionally known for its spectacular landscapes and harsh climate, is emerging as a new frontier for viticulture. Although its winemaking history is still in its early stages, climate change, along with the determination of both local and international pioneers, has enabled the birth and development of a wine industry in a country once considered unsuitable for vine cultivation. This case study examines how climate change has created new opportunities for viticulture in Norway and how the Norwegian wine community is leveraging these conditions.

Climatic context and historical challenges

Traditionally, Norway’s climate was characterized by long, harsh winters, short summers, and a limited growing season, making viticulture practically impossible. However, global temperature increases have made the climate milder in some Norwegian regions, particularly around the fjords and along the western coast, where the Gulf Stream plays a moderating role. These changes have extended the growing season, improved grape ripening, and reduced the risks of late frosts.

The emergence of viticulture in Norway

The first significant push toward Norwegian viticulture occurred with the pioneering work of individuals passionate about experimenting with grape cultivation on small plots. One emblematic example is the creation of Norsk Vin in 2017 by Danilo Costamagna, an Italian engineer who moved to Norway. Costamagna utilized cold-resistant hybrid grape varieties like Solaris and Rondo, successfully producing quality wines despite the challenging climatic conditions.

By 2021, the number of registered vineyards in Norway had risen to about 40. This increase not only reflects technical advancements in viticulture but also a growing interest in wine, both locally and internationally.

The role of climate change

Global warming has had a direct impact on Norwegian viticulture. Milder temperatures have improved growing conditions for the vine, while the long summer days typical of northern latitudes provide a unique advantage. These extended hours of sunlight allow the grapes to ripen slowly, developing complex aromas while maintaining good acidity—a crucial element for producing high-quality wines.

Hybrid varieties like Solaris and Rondo have been key to the success of Norwegian winemaking. Solaris, a cold-resistant white variety with early ripening, produces aromatic wines with high acidity, suitable for both still and sparkling wines. Rondo, a red variety, offers structured and deep wines, demonstrating that high-quality reds can be made in a cold climate.

Key Wine Regions

The main wine-growing areas in Norway include:

● Oslo Fjord Region: the areas around Asker and Filtvet benefit from sandy and clay-rich soils near the fjords, which provide excellent drainage and mitigate the risks of frost.
● Sognefjord: located in the western part of the country, Sognefjord is the world’s northernmost wine region. The southwest-facing slopes and proximity to the Gulf Stream create favorable microclimates, despite limited land availability.

Opportunities and challenges

Norwegian viticulture offers distinctive wines, characterized by freshness and acidity that reflect the unique climate. However, the industry faces several challenges, including:

Climatic risks: despite global warming, Norway’s climate remains unpredictable, with potential risks related to late frosts and excessive rainfall.

Geographical limitations: the cultivable area is limited, as many regions are mountainous or unsuitable for viticulture.

Technical knowledge: as an emerging sector, viticulture in Norway requires further investment in research and education to ensure its long-term success.

In conclusion, while Norwegian viticulture is still in its infancy, the combination of climate change, innovative practices, and local determination is paving the way for an exciting future. This case study demonstrates how new climatic conditions are fostering opportunities for wine production in a region once thought to be too cold for vine cultivation, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of both the land and the people involved in this emerging industry.

1.2.2 Rest of Europe: France and Portugal.

France

France is one of the most historically significant wine-producing countries in the world, with a viticultural tradition dating back to Roman times. The country’s diverse climate, terroir, and centuries of winemaking expertise have made it a global benchmark for quality wines. France is home to some of the most prestigious wine regions, such as Bordeaux, Burgundy, and Champagne, and has contributed to the development of many classic grape varieties, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Chardonnay, and Pinot Noir. French viticulture has evolved over the centuries, overcoming challenges such as phylloxera in the 19th century and economic crises, yet it remains a cornerstone of global wine production. Today, France is one of the largest wine producers in the world, with over 750,000 hectares of vineyards. French wines are protected by the Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, ensuring high standards of quality and authenticity.

The main wine regions of France are:

Bordeaux

One of the world’s most famous wine regions, Bordeaux is located in southwestern France and is known for its red blends made primarily from Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot. The region is divided into sub-regions like the Médoc, Saint-Émilion, and Pomerol, each offering distinct styles. Bordeaux also produces high-quality white wines, including Sauvignon Blanc and Sémillon blends.

Burgundy (Bourgogne)

Located in eastern France, Burgundy is renowned for its terroir-driven wines, particularly Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. The region is divided into famous appellations like Côte de Nuits, Côte de Beaune, and Chablis, producing wines that emphasize finesse, elegance, and minerality.

Champagne

This northeastern region is the birthplace of sparkling wine, produced using the traditional method. Champagne is made primarily from Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier, and is famous for its delicate bubbles and complex flavors. The cool climate and chalky soils contribute to its unique characteristics.

Rhône Valley

Stretching along the Rhône River in southeastern France, this region is known for its bold red wines, particularly Syrah-based wines in the north (such as Hermitage and Côte-Rôtie) and Grenache-based blends in the south (including Châteauneuf-du-Pape). The Rhône also produces notable white wines from Viognier, Marsanne, and Roussanne.

Loire Valley

Adiverse wine region in central France, the Loire Valley is known for its fresh and aromatic white wines, such as Sauvignon Blanc from Sancerre and Chenin Blanc from Vouvray. The region also produces elegant reds, including Cabernet Franc from Chinon.

Alsace

Located near the German border, Alsace specializes in aromatic white wines, particularly Riesling, Gewürztraminer, and Pinot Gris. The region’s wines are often dry and highly expressive, with a strong influence from its unique climate and geology.

Languedoc-Roussillon

One of France’s largest wine-producing regions, Languedoc-Roussillon in the south is known for its diverse range of wines, from robust reds made with Syrah, Grenache, and Carignan to refreshing whites and sparkling Crémant de Limoux.

Provence

Famous for its rosé wines, Provence benefits from a Mediterranean climate that favors the production of light, aromatic, and refreshing wines. The region’s reds and whites, made from grape varieties like Mourvèdre, Cinsault, and Vermentino, are also gaining recognition.

Portugal

Portugal has a rich viticultural history that dates back to ancient times, with winemaking traditions influenced by the Phoenicians, Romans, and Moors. The country is known for its diverse terroirs, indigenous grape varieties, and unique winemaking techniques. Portugal gained international recognition for its fortified wines, particularly Port and Madeira, but in recent decades, its table wines have also earned global acclaim. With a strong commitment to quality and innovation, Portugal produces wines that range from fresh, aromatic whites to bold, structured reds. Today, the country has around 250,000 hectares of vineyards, with a wide variety of microclimates and soils contributing to the distinctive characteristics of its wines.

The main wine regions of Portugal are:

Douro

One of Portugal’s most prestigious wine regions, the Douro Valley is best known for producing Port wine, a fortified wine made from indigenous grape varieties such as Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, and Tinta Roriz. In addition to Port, the region has gained recognition for its high-quality, full-bodied red and white table wines. The steep terraced vineyards along the Douro River create a dramatic landscape and unique growing conditions.

Vinho Verde

Located in the northwest of Portugal, Vinho Verde is famous for its young, fresh, and slightly effervescent white wines made from grapes such as Alvarinho, Loureiro, and Arinto. The cool, rainy climate contributes to the wines’ crisp acidity and light body. The region also produces rosé and red wines, though whites remain the most popular.

Dão

Situated in central Portugal, the Dão region is known for its elegant, structured red wines, primarily made from Touriga Nacional, Tinta Roriz, and Jaen. The mountainous terrain and granite soils create ideal conditions for producing wines with good acidity and aging potential. The region also produces high-quality white wines, often based on Encruzado.

Alentejo

Covering a vast area in southern Portugal, Alentejo is recognized for its warm climate and diverse wine styles. The region produces both robust red wines, often made from Alicante Bouschet, Trincadeira, and Aragonez, and aromatic whites, featuring Antão Vaz and Arinto. Alentejo is also a leader in sustainable and organic viticulture.

Bairrada

Located near the Atlantic coast, Bairrada is known for its bold, tannic red wines made primarily from the Baga grape. The maritime influence helps moderate temperatures, allowing for balanced acidity and freshness. The region also produces high-quality sparkling wines and fresh white wines, particularly from Maria Gomes and Bical.

Madeira

An island region in the Atlantic Ocean, Madeira is famous for its fortified wines, which undergo a unique aging process known as estufagem. Madeira wines range from dry to sweet and are made from grape varieties such as Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, and Malvasia. The island’s volcanic soils and oceanic climate contribute to the wines’ complexity and longevity.

Setúbal

Located south of Lisbon, Setúbal is known for its fortified Moscatel de Setúbal, a sweet wine made from the Muscat grape. The region also produces high-quality red and white wines, benefiting from the warm Mediterranean climate and limestone soils.

1.2.3 Rest of the world: South Africa, California, Australia, Chile

South Africa

Viticulture in South Africa has a history that dates back to the 17th century when Dutch settlers, under the direction of Governor Jan van Riebeeck, planted the first vines in 1659 in the Cape of Good Hope region. The favorable climate and varied soils allowed the development of viticulture, initially producing wine for local consumption and to supply ships traveling to the East. However, it was in the 18th century that South African wines began to gain fame, particularly due to the quality of table wines and fortified wines such as Muscat and Port. In the 19th century, South African viticulture faced challenges like phylloxera, but wine production continued to grow, with the introduction of European grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay. After the end of apartheid in 1994, South Africa saw a resurgence in viticulture, with a strong commitment to quality, innovation, and sustainability. Modern winemaking techniques and improvements in vineyard management have led to the creation of some of the finest wines on the African continent. Today, South Africa is one of the world’s leading wine producers, with about 100,000 hectares of vineyards spread along its Atlantic coast and inland regions. The variety of climates and soils allows for the cultivation of a wide range of grape varieties, from fresh, fruity whites to full-bodied, structured reds.

The main wine regions of South Africa are:

Stellenbosch

Located south of Cape Town, Stellenbosch is the most renowned wine region in South Africa. With its Mediterranean climate and varied soils, it is famous for its red wines, especially those made from grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pinotage, a native South African variety. Stellenbosch is also known for its whites, such as Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc.

Paarl

Adjacent to Stellenbosch, Paarl benefits from a warm climate and diverse soils, making it ideal for both red and white grape cultivation. The region is known for high-quality red wines, particularly those made from Cabernet Sauvignon and Shiraz, as well as whites like Chenin Blanc. Paarl is also famous for producing sparkling wines.

Constantia

Located near Cape Town, Constantia is one of South Africa’s most historic wine regions. This area is known for its aromatic white wines, such as Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay, but also for its sweet wine, Constantia, which has a long tradition dating back to the colonial period. The cool climate of Constantia, influenced by its proximity to the ocean, contributes to the freshness and complexity of its wines.

Walker Bay

With its cool climate and location near the ocean, Walker Bay is one of South Africa’s most promising regions for producing high-quality white wines, especially Pinot Noir and Chardonnay. Its vineyards benefit from a constant breeze that helps keep the grapes fresh, contributing to the production of elegant, mineral wines.

Swartland

Located north of Cape Town, Swartland has become one of the emerging regions for quality wine production. With a hot and dry climate, Swartland is known for its robust reds, often based on Shiraz and Grenache, as well as Chenin Blanc, which is gaining increasing popularity due to its freshness and versatility.

Tulbagh

Situated northeast of Cape Town, the Tulbagh region is less well-known but is emerging as a zone for interesting wine production, particularly for its Pinotage and fresh, aromatic whites, such as Sauvignon Blanc.

Chile

Viticulture in Chile has a history rooted in the colonial period when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century and introduced grape cultivation. The first vineyards were planted by Spanish colonies in the central valleys, where the favorable climate and fertile soils allowed viticulture to thrive. Over the following centuries, Chilean winemaking tradition strengthened, also thanks to the importation of European grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Pais, which adapted perfectly to the local conditions. In the 19th century, with Chile’s independence and the expansion of its economy, Chilean viticulture entered a phase of growth, supported by the arrival of European winemaking techniques and knowledge, particularly from France. However, Chilean viticulture underwent a period of stagnation throughout much of the 20th century, primarily due to a lack of investment and limited grape variety diversification. It wasn’t until the 1980s and 1990s that Chile began to emerge as one of the world’s top wine producers, thanks to the introduction of modern winemaking techniques, diversification of grape varieties, and the adoption of more sustainable practices. The country gained international prestige thanks to the quality of its wines, with a strong focus on international varieties but also a rediscovery of native varieties. Today, Chile is one of the largest wine exporters in the world, thanks to its unique climatic conditions and the variety of terroirs that allow for the cultivation of a wide range of grapes.

The main wine regions of Chile are:

Maipo Valley

Located near the capital Santiago, Maipo is one of Chile’s most famous and historic wine regions. It is known for producing red wines, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, which stands out for its structure and complexity. The region benefits from a Mediterranean climate, with hot summers and cool winters, favoring the ideal ripening of the grapes.

Casablanca Valley

With its cool climate influenced by the sea breeze, Casablanca is one of the main regions for producing white wines, particularly Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay. The proximity to the ocean and the variety of soils allow for the production of fresh and aromatic wines, which have gained great international acclaim.

Colchagua Valley

Located in central Chile, this valley is famous for its red wines, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, and Syrah. Colchagua has a warmer climate compared to other regions and offers ideal terrain for producing full-bodied wines, rich in tannins, with great aging potential.

Australia

Viticulture in Australia has a relatively young history compared to other winemaking traditions worldwide, but it has quickly gained prestige for the quality of its wines. Grape cultivation was introduced by British settlers in 1788 when the first ship loaded with vines was brought to the New World. The first vineyards were planted in Sydney, but viticulture began to flourish in the more southern regions of the country, such as the Hunter Valley. In the 19th century, Australian viticulture developed further thanks to the importation of European grape varieties and the adoption of advanced winemaking practices, allowing for the production of high-quality wines. The next century saw the expansion of the wine industry, also thanks to the immigration of European winemakers who brought new knowledge and techniques. During the 20th century, Australian viticulture underwent a significant transformation, shifting more toward mass production. However, since the late 1980s, there has been a resurgence in interest in quality, with a strong focus on innovative grape varieties and methods. Australian viticulture has embraced a wide variety of international grape varieties, such as Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Chardonnay, and developed its own distinctive style that has made its wines highly regarded internationally. Today, Australia is one of the world’s leading wine producers, with a vast range of wine regions offering an extraordinary diversity of climates, soils, and wine styles.

The main wine regions of Australia are:

Barossa Valley

Located in southern Australia, the Barossa Valley is one of the country’s most famous and traditional wine regions. It is especially known for its Shiraz, which is rich, full-bodied, and intense. Barossa is also known for its Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache, which reflect the warm, Mediterranean character of the region’s climate. Its long winemaking history makes it one of the most prestigious areas in Australia.

Yarra Valley

Located in Victoria, the Yarra Valley is one of the most prestigious wine regions for Pinot Noir and Chardonnay production, but also for its sparkling wines. The cool climate of Yarra Valley allows for the production of elegant and fresh wines with good acidity. The region is also renowned for the quality of its Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon.

Margaret River

This region, located in the southwestern corner of Australia, is famous for its Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay, which achieve exceptional quality thanks to the temperate climate, similar to that of renowned wine regions like Bordeaux and Burgundy. Margaret River’s coastal climate and fertile soils are ideal for cultivating high-quality grapes.

California

Viticulture in California has a relatively young history, but it quickly became one of the most important and influential in the world. The cultivation of vines was introduced by Spanish missionaries in the 18th century when, in 1769, Father Junípero Serra founded the first mission in San Diego and began planting vineyards to produce wine for Mass. The Spanish missionaries continued to expand the vineyards along the California coast, and viticulture slowly developed in the missions, although initially limited to religious purposes. In the 19th century, with the arrival of European immigrants, particularly from the United States and Italy, California viticulture underwent significant evolution. These new winemakers brought European grape varieties and advanced winemaking methods. California began producing wines for commercial consumption, and the most promising wine regions, such as Napa Valley and Sonoma Valley, were identified. The late 19th century saw the growth of the wine industry but was also marked by the devastating phylloxera epidemic, which destroyed much of the Californian vineyards. However, Californian viticulture did not stop. The industry quickly recovered thanks to grafting vines onto phylloxera-resistant American roots. In the 20th century, with the introduction of modern technologies and a growing focus on quality, California began to gain international fame for its wines. The wine industry prospered and diversified, with particular attention to producing red wines such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, and Zinfandel, as well as white varieties like Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc. International exposure, such as the famous Paris Tasting of 1976, helped solidify California’s reputation as one of the best wine regions in the world. The 20th century saw the explosion of wine production, accompanied by a growing focus on sustainability and eco-friendly farming practices. Today, California is the top wine producer in the United States and one of the global leaders, with a variety of wine regions and a broad range of styles, from robust, structured wines to fresh and aromatic ones.

The main wine regions of California are:

Napa Valley

Napa Valley is perhaps the most famous wine region in California, known worldwide for its red wines, particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, which reaches some of the highest quality levels here. Napa Valley is characterized by a warm, Mediterranean climate that allows for optimal grape ripening. The region is also famous for its commitment to sustainable viticulture and its high-end vineyards, attracting wine tourists from around the world.

Sonoma Valley

Located north of San Francisco, Sonoma Valley is one of the most diverse wine regions in California. Its climate varies greatly from area to area, allowing the cultivation of numerous grape varieties, including Pinot Noir, Zinfandel, and Chardonnay. Sonoma is also famous for its tradition of more elegant and refined wines, often associated with low-intervention production methods.

Paso Robles

Located on California’s central coast, Paso Robles is a region that has seen a rapid rise in the wine world, famous for its red wines, particularly Zinfandel, Cabernet Sauvignon, and Syrah. The warm climate of Paso Robles and its varied soils contribute to the production of rich, intense wines, with a growing international reputation.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 1

Suppose you are an expert in wine geography and you have to recommend a wine tour to a group of tourists. Choose two European countries from those covered in the text and describe an itinerary with at least two stops in each country, specifying which wines will be tasted.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 2

Now choose two non-European countries from those covered in the text and describe an itinerary with at least two stops in each country, specifying which wines will be tasted.

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 3

Imagine you are an event organiser specialising in wine tourism. Your task is to design an international wine event that highlights the wines and wine traditions of two of the countries of your choice covered in the text.
To develop your event, answer the following questions:

1. Title and theme of the event

● Choose a catchy name for your event.
● What is the common thread? For example: guided tastings, food pairings, history and culture of wine, new technologies in wine production.

2. Location and period

● Where will the event take place? Will it be in a city famous for its wine production, in a capital city, or in an unusual location?
● What time of year will you organise it and why?

Self-evaluation test

Resources/Bibliography:

Fisar, Il Sommelier, volume 2° livello.
www.quattrocalici.it

Extra resources for in-deep level:
www.federdoc.com
www.wsetglobal.com

Harding J., Robinson J., Thomas Q.T., (2023), World Atlas of Wine

Learning Unit 1.1

Learning Unit 1.3

Learning Unit 1.3 The climate shift: introduction to climate change

1.3.1 General overview of climate change

Climate refers to the average atmospheric conditions, measured through remote sensing by satellites or direct measurements, that occur over the long term (approximately thirty years) in a given area. Depending on the extent of the area considered, we can distinguish between macroclimate, mesoclimate, and microclimate.

Macroclimate

Macroclimate refers to the climate of a vast area.

For example, we talk about the Mediterranean climate when referring to all regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea.

Mesoclimate (also called
topoclimate)

Mesoclimate is the climate of a more restricted area, such as the climate of a city, the climate along a mountain slope, or the climate on the shores of a lake.

Microclimate

Microclimate refers to the climate of an even smaller area, such as the climate within a small forest or a city square.

Climate change

Climate change is an alteration of the normal state of the climate, identified through statistical simulation models and paleoclimatic studies (paleoclimatology is the scientific discipline that studies the Earth’s climate and its variations throughout the planet’s long history), that persists for an extended period (several decades or more). These changes can occur due to natural causes (internal or external, including modulation of solar cycles, volcanic eruptions) or artificial causes that alter the composition of the atmosphere.
Climate change refers to long-term modifications in the Earth’s climate system, including variations in temperatures, precipitation patterns, the frequency of extreme weather events, and other climatic parameters. These variations can occur over decades, centuries, or millennia.
On a global scale, climate change is currently characterized by a rapid warming of the planet. This phenomenon is attributed to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, an effect amplified by human activity.

The main causes of climate change can be divided into:

Natural factors

● Solar variations: changes in the Sun’s activity influence the amount of energy reaching the Earth.
● Volcanic activity: eruptions can release large amounts of particles and gases into the atmosphere, temporarily affecting the climate.
● Natural climate oscillations: pPhenomena like El Niño and La Niña impact global climate patterns.

Anthropogenic (Human) causes

● Greenhouse gas emissions: the use of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) for energy production has increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels by 50% compared to the pre-industrial era.
● Deforestation: the removal of forests reduces the Earth’s ability to absorb CO₂.
● Agriculture and livestock farming: methane (CH₄) emissions from livestock and nitrous oxide (N₂O) released from fertilizers contribute to global warming.

1.3.2 Key climate change data

Temperatures

According to the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), the global average temperature has risen by approximately 1.1°C compared to pre-industrial levels (1850-1900). The year 2023 was among the hottest ever recorded, with extreme events such as record-breaking heatwaves in Europe and North America.

Figure 1 – Variation (°C) in the annual average surface temperature relative to pre-industrial levels.

Greenhouse gases

The concentration of CO₂ exceeded 420 ppm (parts per million) in 2023, a level not reached in the last 800,000 years. However, CO₂ is not the only greenhouse gas responsible for global warming. Other greenhouse gases are present in smaller quantities but can have a much stronger warming effect.
For example, methane (CH₄) accounted for 12% of the EU’s greenhouse gas emissions impact in 2021. Additionally, anthropogenic gases such as fluorinated gases used in industry can have a global warming effect thousands of times stronger than CO₂.
Greenhouse gases naturally occur in the atmosphere, but human activities significantly contribute to their accumulation.

Figure 2 – Annual average CO₂ concentration (ppm) in the atmosphere.

Ice Melt

The Arctic ice is shrinking at a rate of 13% per decade. In 2023, sea ice extent reached one of the lowest levels on record.
The melting of ice in Greenland and Antarctica is contributing to rising sea levels, which have increased by approximately 20 cm since 1900.

Figure 3 – Annual ice loss or gain in meters in Greenland.

The map shows the annual loss or gain of ice in Greenland in meters. The light blue areas indicate a slight increase, while the orange, red, and purple areas show the losses, ranging from the smallest to the most significant (up to 10 meters per year along the coasts).

Figure 4 – Annual ice loss or gain in meters in Antarctica.

The map shows the annual ice loss or gain in Antarctica in meters. The light blue areas indicate a slight increase, while the orange, red, and purple areas show the severity of the losses, ranging from minor to more substantial (up to 10 meters per year along the coasts).

1.3.3 Extreme events

Extreme weather events are atmospheric phenomena that occur with exceptional or unexpected intensity compared to the norm of a given geographical area. They are generally associated with particularly severe meteorological conditions and can have significant consequences on the territory, public health, economic activities, the environment, and society as a whole. Heatwaves, hurricanes, and torrential rainfall have become more frequent and intense worldwide.

As highlighted by Il Bo Live of the University of Padua (the official online magazine of the University of Padua), 2023 was a symbolic year for the increasing intensity and frequency of extreme climate events, emphasizing the increasingly tangible impacts of climate change on a global scale. Some of the most significant events
include:

Record global temperatures: the first days of July 2023 recorded the highest average global temperatures ever documented, exceeding 17°C for the first time, with a peak of 17.23°C on July 6. The entire month of July 2023 was recognized as the hottest ever, with a global average temperature 1.54°C higher than the pre-industrial era.

• Warming of the Mediterranean: during the summer, the surface waters of the Mediterranean Sea reached temperatures of up to 30°C, exceeding the July average by more than 5°C, with severe repercussions on marine ecosystems.

• Climate anomalies in South America: despite being winter in the Southern Hemisphere, South America experienced an unprecedented heatwave, highlighting the irregularity of current climate patterns.

• Extreme events in Italy: in 2023, Italy witnessed a series of anomalous meteorological phenomena, including significant cloudbursts in Lombardy, devastating floods such as the one in Emilia-Romagna, and repeated heatwaves affecting mainly central and southern regions between July and August.

These events, once considered exceptional, are becoming the “new normal” due to climate change. According to the latest IPCC synthesis report, a person born in 2020 will be much more likely to experience extreme events compared to their grandparents, born in the 1950s and 1960s.

Furthermore, it is emphasized that climate change does not cause the emergence of new meteorological phenomena but significantly increases their frequency and intensity. This means that events such as heatwaves and floods, although they have always existed, now occur more frequently and with greater severity.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

PRACTICAL EXERCISE N. 1 – Climate definitions

Provide two examples for each of the following definitions. One example is in your country and the other is in one of the country descripted in the Learning Unit 2.

Macroclimate
Mesoclimate (also called topoclimate)
Microclimate

PRACTICAL EXERCISE N. 2 - Climate change and extreme weather events

Read the following scenarios and explain how they relate to climate change:

A heatwave in South America occurs during the winter season.
Torrential rains cause severe floods in Italy.
The Mediterranean Sea records surface temperatures 5°C higher than usual.

How do these events impact human societies, ecosystems, and economies?

PRACTICAL EXERCISE N. 3 - Personal reflection and action plan

What can individuals do to combat climate change? List at least three actions that you can take in your daily life to reduce your carbon footprint.

Self-evaluation test

Resources/Bibliography:

https://www.focus.it/ambiente/natura/scioglimento-dei-ghiacci-le-perdite-degli-ultimi-16-anni
https://www.benjerry.it/whats-new/2020/11/extreme-weather-events
https://ilbolive.unipd.it/it/news/scienza-ricerca/dati-riscaldamento-globale-italia-2024-altro-anno
www.unric.org

Extra resources for in-deep level:

Poni S., Progettare e gestire il vigneto sostenibile in un’era di cambiamento climatico.
Dottori C., Come vignaioli alla fine dell’estate. L’ecologia vista da una vigna.
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/it/article/20180703STO07123/statistiche-sul-cambiamento-climatico-in-europa
https://www.ipcc.ch/
https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/fact-checking-i-cambiamenti-climatici-10-grafici-32170

Learning Unit 1.2

Module 2

MODULE 1 - Climate change and the future of wine: production, geography and impact

MODULE 1

Climate change and the future of wine: production, Geography and impact

Introduction to the module

Structure of the module

Learning Unit 1.1 - Viticulture and territory: from vine to glass

Learning Unit 1.2 - Exploring wine geography: a journey through regions

Learning Unit 1.3 - The climate shift: how climate change is redrawing wine production and geography.

Learning Unit 1.1 - Viticulture and territory: from vine to glass

1.1.1 Soil in viticulture

Sand: (0.02 to 2 mm)

Silt: (0.002 to 0.02 mm)

Soil composition and its effects on wine

Soil Type

Composition

Wine Characteristics

Soil vs Terroir

1.1.2 The vine and the climate

Temperature

Temperature range and the vine

The role of light in vine cultivation

Moisture in vine cultivation

Rain

The role of soil

Snow

Fog

Dew

Frosts

Winds

Exposure and location of vineyards

Exposure and location of vineyards

Altitude

Slope

Proximity to water bodies

1.1.3 Biological cycles of the vine

1. The Weeping

2. Sprouting

3. Vegetation

4. Flowering

5. The Allegation

6. The Flooding

7. Ripening

8. Vegetative Rest

1.1.4 The different training systems and their characteristics

1. Sapling

2. Guyot

3. Spur-pruned cordon

4. Pergola

5. Tendone

6. G.D.C. (Geneva Double Curtain) training system

7. Spalliera (Vertical trellis)

8. Gobelet (a variation of the bush vine system)

1.1.5 The winemaking process

1. Harvesting

2. Destemming and Crushing

3. Maceration and alcoholic fermentation

4. Malolactic fermentation (optional)

5. Maturation

6. Stabilization and filtration

7. Blending (for blends)

8. Bottling

Red winemaking

White winemaking

Rosé winemaking

Sparkling Wines winemaking

1.1.6 Wine vessels

Wood (barrel/barrique)

Reinforced concrete (or raw concrete)

Steel

Fiberglass

Ceramic vessels (amphorae, terracotta jars, etc.)

1.1.7 Wine corks

1. Natural Cork

2. Synthetic Cork

3. Screw Cap (or Twist-Off Cap)

4. Glass Wine Corks

PRACTICAL EXERCISES

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 1 - Soil Texture Analysis

PRACTICAL EXERCISE n. 2: "Exploring sparkling wines"

Materials needed: